نبرد گالیپولی یا نبرد چناق‌قلعه

On 28 July 1914, Austria had declared mobilisation then the Great War began. In Europe, two blocs had appeared, Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary and Italy) and Triple Alliance (Britain, France and Russia). With the outbreak of the war, Italy had declared her neutrality but one year later she joined to the Triple Alliance.

On the other hand, Ottoman Empire was losing her large territories in which many nations and beliefs had lived for over 600 years. Both internal and external conflicts and wars were weakening her strength. Finally, Ottoman Empire with series of military defeats in Tripoli and in the Balkans lost nearly all her territories in Europe except the Trace.

Moreover, she lost her power and international prestige. From now on, the death of the empire was certain and European powers were planing to share the heritage. As seen, the Twentieth Century had compelled the Turks to grant zones of influence to European powers: Britain (Egypt-Palestine), France (Syria and the Lebanon), Austria-Hungary (Bosnia-Herzegovina), Italy (Libya). Russia was interested in the Mediterranean and Italy wanted parts of the eastern Mediterranean.

Following the blow of the war, under threat from within and outside her borders, Turkey sought a protective agreement from one of the two European power blocs: the Triple Alliance or the Central Powers. At first, she intended to join the Triple Alliance but Russia’s protests led her to make a defensive alliance with Germany. On 2 August 1914, Turkey and Germany had signed a secret agreement.

Thereupon, the Turkish government had declared that it would remain neutral. However, to secure its borders, it introduced mobilisation. On 10 August 1914, Turkey allowed two German cruisers Goeben and Breslau, which were running from the Allied Navy, to enter the straits. Afterwards, she closed the straits to the foreign ships.

The Allies became increasingly alarmed with the arrival of those German ships. The Turkish government had stated that, they bought these battleships from Germany in place of two dreadnought battleships, which had been built in Britain for the Turkish Navy, and were requisitioned by Britain although Turkey had purchased them. Thus, the German ships became a part of the Turkish Navy with Turkish names, Yavuz and Midilli.

On 27 September 1914, Yavuz under the command of German Admiral Souchon bombarded Sivastopol and Novoroski, Russian shore establishments on the Black Sea. Thereupon, Russia passed the Caucasus border and declared war. This was the final act; the Ottoman Government was now at war.

Turkey’s geographical position was crucial, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were significant, as they were the only passages between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Moreover, they were Russia’s main contact with her allies, Britain and France.

In the course of history, countless wars had been fought for the straits in the name of their strategic positions, economic and cultural heritages. Even today, they still preserve their importance.

The Triple Alliance’s attempt to pass the straits was certainly a direct result of their strategic positions. The allies’ main target was to assist Russia. Likewise, it was believed that the capture of the straits would lead the British fleet to Istanbul and this might cause the downfall of the Turkish government. Further, it was hoped that the neutral European countries would join the Alliance against the Central Powers.

If the straits would be openned, this victory would intimidate all the Muslim colonies. All the events, disturbing the British would disappear.

Under these circumstances, Britain had decided to declare a war on 28 January 1915 and France offered a naval squadron to serve under British command in this great enterprise against Istanbul.

Carden stated that he believed the Dardanelles could be forced, given sufficient warships and minesweepers, in a three stage plan; first a neutralisation of the Turkish forts guarding the entrance, then a clearing of the Turkish minefields, and finally a drive into the Sea of Marmara. This plan persuaded the War Council despite Lord Fisher’s doubts. The British Navy was proud of its ammunitions, technology, and surely, its victorious history, full of uncountable successes. It was impossible for the frayed, collapsing Ottoman Empire to withstand this invincible armada supported by French warships.

Allied Armada’s naval attack began on 19 February 1915. Until 13 March 1915, they continuously bombarded the Turkish forts and opened a way for the minesweepers. However, they had confronted with the Turks’ tough resistance. The Turkish gunners did not bother to reply the Allies’ bombardment. This showed that, to open the Dardanelles was not that easy and the Allies could have cleaned only the first five miles of the strait.

Until 18 March the Allied Armada destroyed Seddulbahir and Ertugrul forts located on the European shore and Kumkale and Orhaniye forts located on the Asiatic shore. It seemed that the entrance was now clear but the future was still uncertain. Nobody guessed what was going to happen on 18 March 1915.

On 17 March 1915, Admiral de Robeck was in charge to proceed the plan in place of Admiral Carden. In respect of Carden’s plan, the Allied Fleet appeared in the entrance in the morning of 18 March. De Robeckhimself commanded the Fleet’s most powerful squadron.

In bright sunshine and without the possibility of surprise, de Robeck in HMS Queen Elizabeth led the first wave up the channel at 10:30. Queen Elizabeth’s target was Mecidiye fort, HMS Lord Nelson was going to bomb the Namazgah fort and HMS Inflexible’s object was Hamidiye fort. This was called as “A Line” and it was begun to be proceeding at 11:30. De Robeck’s most powerful ships commenced to bombard the central forts.

Meanwhile, Allied Fleet had entered the fire line coming from Kumkale. Turkish hotwizers began to fire, but their guns could not cover the distance and the gunners failed to reach the ships. At midday, Allied Fleet had destroyed the Cimenlik and Hamidiye forts. De Robeck signalled his second wave to go in closer, Guepratte’s French squadron, Bouvet, Charlemagne, Gaulois and Suffren with HMS Triumph and Prince George.

This step of the plan was called as “B Line”. Guepratte led his squadron through the British line and subjected the shore defences. Under Turkish gunners’ heavy fire, the squadron had reached the B Line. After a mutual bombardment, the Allies had succeeded to stop the middle forts but the central forts continued to fire. Two British ships, HMS Triumph and HMS Prince George had taken their positions in A Line and they targeted Mesudiye and Yildiz forts.

Turkish forts on the European shore were under a fierce fire. Most of the bombshells had hit them and destroyed the telephone lines. Moreover, Mecidiye fort stopped with the death of its gunners.

If the allies could have succeeded the second step of the plan, second squadron commanded by Colonel Hayes Sadler would have moved and replaced the third squadron. De Robeck signalled the French to retire for his third wave of advance, Ocean, Irresistible, Albion, Vengeance, Swiftsun and Majestic.

As the French ships led by Suffren had their return, wheeled away to make room for the second squadron, something unexpected had happened, around 14:00. French ship Bouvet following immediately Suffren hit a mine and within two minutes had disappeared entirely, with the loss of almost all her crew. As the steamboats immediately arrived to rescue the crew, they only could save 20 people’s lives. At 12:30, Gaulois hit a mine but she could have left the strait with a serious stroke. At 15:30, Inflexible hit a mine not far from the grave of Bouvet.

Despite severe damage, she could have arrived to the island of Imros. Shortly afterwards, Irresistible hit a mine; out of control she was near the Asiatic shore to attract the attention of Turkish gunners and her crew was taken off. On 8 March, Turkish minelayer Nusret had surreptitiously laid a line of mines parallel to the Asiatic shore, and now these mines were unexpectedly destroying the Allied Armada. As De Robeck had realised that the Turks had laid mines to the channel, he abandoned the attack. At 18:05, while the second squadron was withdrawing, HMS Ocean hit a mine and she exploded. Despite a heavy fire, her crew was evacuated.

The events in 18 March confused the Allies. Churchill‘s opponents like Lord Fisher had turned out to be right, it was impossible to open the strait “by ships only”. Nevertheless, de Robeck and Churchill were still insisting that a renewed push would succeed. They began to renovate the plans for another naval expedition to Istanbul.

Ottoman Minister of War, Mahmut Shevket Pasha closely followed the development of aeroplanes and in 1911, he formed the department of military aviation. This department served as the basis of the modern Turkish Air Force.

To provide this flying weapon, Mahmut Pasha donated an important part of his salary and started a nation-wide campaign. On this purpose, Sultan Reshad, the Navigation Society, officers, and many rich people followed the Pasha and the sufficient amount was collected in a short time. As Mahmut Pasha has found the money he bought two aeroplanes from France.

Next, a school of aviation was established, in Istanbul. In addition, another school for seaplanes was established and for this new schools enthusiastic and talented officers were chosen.

When the Dardanelles Assault has begun, Turkish aviation was newly born and was just developing. Nevertheless, the Dardanelles is very important for the development of Turkish aviation. It was the first experience of the air strategies and tactics.

On 2 August 1914, Turkey introduced mobilisation and two seaplanes were sent to Izmir and one was sent to Canakkale. On 25 August 1914, the Nievport type seaplane used by Captain Savmi, first lieutenant Fazil and first lieutenant Cemal- from its disposition in Canakkale Nara Square, observed the activities of British and French ships. Until 18 March 1915, many successful reconnaissanceshave been made.

The report of Turkish pilots on 18 March 1915 is as follows:

“In front of island of Imbros 40 enemy ships were seen. 19 of them are heavy, 3 of them are light cruisers. The others are steamers and aircraft carriers. Submarines were seen as well, but the number is uncertain. 6 English dreadnoughts were noticed, they are advancing in assault order and the French ships are weighing anchors.”

After a while, when the Allied Navy has entered the strait, the British planes took of from Ark Royal, assisted the artillery. In the afternoon of 18 March, Turkish reconnaissances were ordered to notify the Allies’ positions on the island of Limnos. In one hour, the pilots have reached their target and reported that, on Mondros Cove there were 13 battleships, 14 carriages and 29 coal ships. Moreover, they have informed that, French Gaulois was very seriously damaged in the entrance of the strait.

During the Dardanelles campaign, mutual reconnaissance continued. One of Turkish pilots’ succeesses was on 18 March. That day, to destroy 18 ally planes positioned on the island of Imros, an assault had planned. However, allied aeroplanes take off and met with the Turkish planes on the air and after a short struggle without a serious causality, they returned to the airport. Turkish assault failed, but it was the first real air enterprise.

In the same day, the British made a counter-attack with six planes, but as the Turkish planes were hidden the bombs did not destroy any of them.

On 25 June, to the British positions on Anzac Cove, the Turkish planes throw 3000 announcements in English. This was a good example of the importance of air force in a psychological war.

First Lieutenant Ali Riza and Lieutenant Orhan were ordered to destroy a grounded ally cruiser in the entrance of the strait, on 30 November 1915. At the moment of the attack, a French plane came closer but, Ali Riza managed to shot the plane and it was fallen. First Lieutenant Ali Riza was the first Turkish pilot who succeeded to shot a plane by a machine gun and destroy it.

As seen, as in all the steps of the Dardanelles Campaign, the Turks repulsed the air assaults very successfully. Even in the English war history books, this reality is revealed. One of them says, “We admired our enemy’s extraordinary defence and final success”.